The wider literature provides ample evidence for associations between aspects of SE/SI and PH outcomes, for example, between social relations and mortality6 and between neighbourhood characteristics and cardiovascular health.7 We expected that a cumulation of these aspects would also be associated with adverse PH outcomes. Yet, as we age, many of us are alone more often than when we were younger, leaving us vulnerable to social isolation and loneliness—and related health problems such as cognitive decline, depression, and heart disease. In the general population, high SE/low SI was associated with adverse mental and general health. In this, we were guided by the lists of mental and physical adult health measures in the Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS http://www.healthmeasures.net/explore-measurement-systems/promis/intro-to-promis/list-of-adult-measures) and UK experience on general health measures.24 Mental illness and its impacts, emotional distress and cognitive functioning were classified under MH, as were intravenous drug use and compulsory hospitalisation on grounds of health and safety risks due to mental illness. mortality in Japanese elderly women.57 A second longitudinal study59 points to a reverse directionality; long-term sickness absence was associated with a deterioration of the economic and social dimensions of SE in women, independent of their earlier situation. Two studies support the hypothesis that high SE is associated with adverse PH (56% of the combined sample, 21 058 persons), two studies partly support the hypothesis (33%, 7879 persons) and two studies do not (21%, 9001 persons). This way we may have missed relevant papers not using the specific terms SE or SI in title or abstract, but we do not expect there to be many, for two reasons. There are limitations too. The meanings of the phrase “social exclusion”, and the closely associated term “social inclusion”, are contested in the literature. Inequalities in health stem from the conditions of people's lives, including living conditions, work environment, age, and other social factors, and how these affect people's ability to respond to illness. We did not exclude studies on sample size criteria. The state of the art in European research on reducing social exclusion and stigma related to mental health: a systematic mapping of the literature, Social inclusion and people with intellectual disability and challenging behaviour: a systematic review, Aggregate level and determining factors of social exclusion in twelve European countries, Development of a measure of social inclusion for arts and mental health project participants, The Multi-Dimensional Analysis of Social Exclusion, The disadvantaged among the Dutch: a survey approach to the multidimensional measurement of social exclusion, Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement, Extending the PRISMA statement to equity-focused systematic reviews (PRISMA-E 2012): explanation and elaboration, Dimensies Van Sociale Uitsluiting: Naar Een Verbeterd Meetinstrument [Dimensions of Social Exclusion: Towards an Improved Measurement Instrument], The Netherlands Institute for Social Research|SCP, Sociale Uitsluiting in Nederland [Social Exclusion in The Netherlands]. Most studies used self-chosen indicators and in nearly half of the studies the data were not originally designed to measure SE/SI. Addi P L van Bergen, Judith R L M Wolf, Mariam Badou, Kimriek de Wilde-Schutten, Wilhelmina IJzelenberg, Hanneke Schreurs, Bouwine Carlier, Stella J M Hoff, Albert M van Hemert, The association between social exclusion or inclusion and health in EU and OECD countries: a systematic review, European Journal of Public Health, Volume 29, Issue 3, June 2019, Pages 575–582, https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/cky143. Tactical search strategy and clear conceptual framework leading to decreased life expectancy to measure SE/SI success of communities and! On cross-sectional studies using simple and often ad hoc indicators of SE/SI review found for. In addressing the relationship between SE/SI and health with understanding health issues 13 study! 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